Living in a North Welsh Frontier in the Middle Ages
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Angharad ferch Owain, the heroine of my book, ‘The Welsh Traitor’s Daughter’, was brought up in Tegeingl at the end of the 11th Century in north-eastern Wales. It was a turbulent time when the area saw a frontier society's growth. The area she called home was a sparsely populated region, known as the Perfeddwlad by the Welsh and later became recognised as St. Asaph's diocese by Anglo-Normans. What fascinated me was that Angharad’s place of birth and surroundings gave me a unique lens through which to explore cultural, political, and social interactions in a Welsh frontier zone, particularly from a woman’s point of view.
In medieval terms, a frontier was not just a geographical boundary; it was a meeting ground for different cultures and societies and like all such places, it reflected the dynamic tensions between competing powers. North-eastern Wales was one such space, balanced between the Welsh kingdom of Gwynedd to the west of the Dee and Anglo-Norman England to the east.
This frontier’s identity was indeed shaped by its geography, with scattered settlements, strategic hillforts, and a cultural divide between upland pastoralism and lowland agriculture. For two centuries, this landscape had much to do with the forging of interactions that gradually created a hybrid society.
The process of change in north-eastern Wales was gradual. Unlike the broader Welsh March, where Norman influence spread more swiftly, the Perfeddwlad retained its distinct Welsh identity well into the High Middle Ages. This can be seen in various ways. Land in the Perfeddwlad was organised around Welsh kinship systems and traditional tenure practices. This structure persisted even under Anglo-Norman rule, demonstrating the resilience of Welsh culture in rural areas. Meanwhile, the population remained predominantly Welsh until the late 13th century. Welsh place names dominated, and personal names in historical records confirm the cultural continuity of the region.
There are many interactions between the Welsh and Anglo-Normans in north-eastern Wales, which I used in my books to show what the Welsh were experiencing. Anglo-Norman colonisation brought new settlements, though their success was slow and depended on a growing population. Early settlements were sparse and often designed for strategic purposes rather than widespread habitation. Anglo-Norman administrative influence in governance was cemented with the diocese of St. Asaph, rooted in Canterbury’s ecclesiastical framework. However, this was not in place until the mid-12th century when it brought Anglo-Norman religious structures to the region. However, Welsh traditions heavily influenced civil institutions until the Edwardian Conquest after 1282. The region was often a battleground, with Gwynedd's rulers defending Welsh independence against Anglo-Norman advances. At the same time, periods of peace allowed for cultural exchange, trade, and intermarriage.
The Edwardian Conquest marked a turning point in north-eastern Wales. This was a time beyond the life of Angharad and her children. The influx of settlers from England and the introduction of English laws transformed the region into a more mature frontier society. By the end of the 13th century, north-eastern Wales was no longer just a meeting ground—it was a contested territory absorbed into the larger English domain.
However, cultural assimilation's slow pace meant traces of Welsh identity lingered. Rural communities maintained Welsh traditions, particularly as urban areas and religious institutions became more Anglo-Norman. The Perfeddwlad was a vibrant, evolving space where Welsh and Anglo-Norman cultures collided, interacted, and ultimately fused into something unique and fascinating. Hopefully, I have captured something of this in my Warrior Series books about Angharad ferch Owain, Gruffydd ap Cynan and their children.